Review of the studies on the water-energy nexus of the electricity sector
WANG Chun-yan1, TIAN Lei2, YU Min3, LIU Yi1
1. School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China;
2. Energy Research Institute, National Development and Reform Commission, Beijing 100038, China;
3. Institute for Resources and Environmental Policies, Development Research Center of the State council, Beijing 100010, China
The electricity generation consumes around 8% of global water use. The water use for the electricity generation and transmission is defined as "the water for energy" or "the water-energy nexus of the electricity sector". This study went through the literatures that are relevant to this topic from the following aspects:the quantification of the water consumption and withdrawal by various electricity generation types; the analysis of the mismatch between electricity generation/transmission and water resources; and other related environmental issues. This study concluded that:the cooling technologies would have significant influence on the water consumption and withdrawal for the electricity generation; there are tremendous spatial disparities of local water resources and electricity generation; comprehensive management of the water and energy is still lacking and urgently needed.
王春艳, 田磊, 俞敏, 刘毅. 电力行业水-能耦合关系研究综述[J]. 中国环境科学, 2018, 38(12): 4742-4748.
WANG Chun-yan, TIAN Lei, YU Min, LIU Yi. Review of the studies on the water-energy nexus of the electricity sector. CHINA ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCECE, 2018, 38(12): 4742-4748.
Siddiqi A, Anadon L. The water-energy nexus in middle east and north Africa[J]. Energy Policy, 2011,39(8):4529-4540.
[2]
Rulli M, Bellomi D, Cazzoli A, et al. The water-land-food nexus of first-generation biofuels[J]. Scientific Reports, 2016,6:22521.
[3]
Pacetti T, Lombardi L, Federici G. Water-energy nexus:A case of biogas production from energy crops evaluated by water footprint and life cycle assessment (LCA) methods[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2015,101:278-291.
[4]
Spang E, Moomaw W, Gallagher K, et al. The water consumption of energy production:An international comparison[J]. Environmental Research Letters, 2014,9(10):105002.
[5]
Okadera T, Geng Y, Fujita T, et al. Evaluating the water footprint of the energy supply of liaoning province, Cchina:A regional input-output analysis approach[J]. Energy Policy, 2015,78:148-157.
[6]
Ramaswami A, Boyer D, Nagpure A, et al. An urban systems framework to assess the trans-boundary food-energy-water nexus:Implementation in Delhi, India[J]. Environmental Research Letters, 2017,12(2):025008.
[7]
Hussien W, Memon F, Savic D. An integrated model to evaluate water-energy-food nexus at a household scale[J]. Environmental Modelling & Software, 2017,93:366-380.
[8]
Liao X, Hall J, Eyre N. Water use in China's thermoelectric power sector[J]. Global Environmental Change, 2016,41:142-152.
[9]
Macknick J. Water impacts of the electricity sector. American solar energy society. World Renewable Energy Forum, 2012.
[10]
Statistics Canada. Section 3:The demand for water in Canada.
[11]
Meldrum J, Nettles-Anderson S, Heath G, et al. Life cycle water use for electricity generation:A review and harmonization of literature estimates[J]. Environmental Research Letters, 2013,8(1):015031.
[12]
Dodder S. A review of water use in the U.S. Electric power sector:Insights from systems-level perspectives[J]. Current Opinion in Chemical Engineering, 2014,5:7-14.
[13]
Sanders K. Uncharted waters? The future of the electricity-water nexus[J]. Environmental Science & Technology, 2015,49(1):51-66.
[14]
Fthenakis V, Kim H. Life-cycle uses of water in U.S. Electricity generation[J]. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2010, 14(7):2039-2048.
[15]
Li X, Feng K, Siu Y, et al. Energy-water nexus of wind power in China:The balancing act between CO2 emissions and water consumption[J]. Energy Policy, 2012,45:440-448.
[16]
Feng K, Hubacek K, Siu Y, et al. The energy and water nexus in Chinese electricity production:A hybrid life cycle analysis[J]. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2014,39:342-355.
[17]
Lubega W, Farid A. Quantitative engineering systems modeling and analysis of the energy-water nexus[J]. Applied Energy, 2014,135:142-157.
[18]
Lubega W, Farid A. A meta-system architecture for the energy-water nexus[C]. 8th International Conference on System of Systems Engineering, 2013:76-81.
[19]
Wang C, Li Y, Liu Y. Investigation of water-energy-emission nexus of air pollution control of the coal-fired power industry:A case study of Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region, China[J]. Energy Policy, 2018, 115(291-301).
[20]
Jiang D, Ramaswami A. The ‘thirsty’ water-electricity nexus:Field data on the scale and seasonality of thermoelectric power generation's water intensity in China[J]. Environmental Research Letters, 2015, 10(2):024015.
[21]
Averyt K, Macknick J, Rogers J, et al. Water use for electricity in the United States:An analysis of reported and calculated water use information for 2008[J]. Environmental Research Letters, 2013, 8(1):015001.
[22]
Sesma D, Rubiovaras M. Freshwater for cooling needs:A long-run approach to the nuclear water footprint in Spain[J]. Ecological Economics, 2017,140:146-156.
[23]
Mekonnen M, Hoekstra A. The blue water footprint of electricity from hydropower[J]. Hydrology and Earth System Science, 2012,16(1):179-187.
[24]
Grubert E. Water consumption from hydroelectricity in the United States[J]. Advance in Water Resource, 2016,96:88-94.
[25]
Bakken T, Modahl I, Raadal H, et al. Allocation of water consumption in multipurpose reservoirs[J]. Water Policy, 2016,18(4):932-947.
[26]
Zhang X, Liu J, Tang Y, et al. China's coal-fired power plants impose pressure on water resources[J]. Journal of Cleaner Production, 2017, 161:1171-1179.
[27]
Macknick J, Newmark R, Heath G, et al. Operational water consumption and withdrawal factors for electricity generating technologies:A review of existing literature[J]. Environmental Research Letters, 2012,7(4):045802.
[28]
Murrant D, Quinn A, Chapman L, et al. Water use of the UK thermal electricity generation fleet by 2050:Part 1identifying the problem[J]. Energy Policy, 2017,108:844-858.
[29]
Brierley M. Re:UK power stations water consumption data. 2014. Type to MURRANT, D.
[30]
Woldeyesus T. Electric portfolio modeling with stochastic water-climate interactions:Implications for co-management of water and electric utilities[D]. 2012, Denvor:University of Colorado.
[31]
Byers E, Hall J, Amezaga J. Electricity generation and cooling water use:UK pathways to 2050[J]. Global Environmental Change, 2014,25:16-30.
[32]
Mekonnen M, Gerbens-Leenes P, Hoekstra A. The consumptive water footprint of electricity and heat:A global assessment[J]. Environmental Science-Water Research & Technology, 2015,1(3):285-297.
[33]
Pfister S, Saner D, Koehler A. The environmental relevance of freshwater consumption in global power production[J]. International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, 2011,16(6):580-591.
[34]
Carrillo A, Frei C. Water:A key resource in energy production[J]. Energy Policy, 2009,37(11):4303-4312.
[35]
Koulouri A, Moccia J. Saving water with wind energy[R]. Belgium:The European Wind Energy Association, 2014.
[36]
Torcellini P, Long N, Judkoff R. Consumptive water use for U.S. Power production[R]. 2010.
[37]
DOE. Concentrating solar power commercial application study.[EB/OL]. https://www.osti.gov/biblio/1218186.
[38]
Smart A, Aspinall A. Water and the electricity generation industry[R]. Colorado:NREL2009.
[39]
Zhu X, Guo R, Chen B, et al. Embodiment of virtual water of power generation in the electric power system in China[J]. Applied Energy, 2015,151:345-354.
[40]
Innovation for Energy. Water for electricity[EB/OL]. www.ifpenergiesnouvelles.com/Publications/Availablestudies/Panorama-technical-reports/Panorama-2011.
[41]
Marsh D. The water-energy nexus:A comprehensive analysis in the context of New South Wales. 2008. Sydney:University of Technology.
[42]
Grubert E, Beach F, Webber M. Can switching fuels save water? A life cycle quantification of freshwater consumption for texas coal-and natural gas-fired electricity[J]. Environmental Research Letters, 2012, 7(4):045801.
[43]
Ali B, Kumar A. Development of water demand coefficients for power generation from renewable energy technologies[J]. Energy Conversion and Management, 2017,143:470-481.
[44]
DOE. Energy demands on water resources:Report to congress on the interdependency of energy and water[R]. Washington:2006.
[45]
Whitaker M, Heath G, Burkhardt J, et al. Life cycle assessment of a power tower concentrating solar plant and the impacts of key design alternatives[J]. Environmental science & technology, 2013,47(11):5896-5903.
[46]
DOE. Renewable energy technology characterizations[R]. Washington:1997.
[47]
NREL. Fuel from the sky:Solar power's potential for western energy supply[R]. Colorado:2002.
[48]
NREL. Assessment of parabolic trough and power tower solar technology cost and performance forecasts[R] Colorado:2003.
[49]
Wu X, Chen G. Energy and water nexus in power generation:The surprisingly high amount of industrial water use induced by solar power infrastructure in China[J]. Applied Energy, 2017,195:125-136.
[50]
Li X, Feng K, Siu Y, et al. Energy-water nexus of wind power in China:The balancing act between CO2 emissions and water consumption[J]. Energy Policy, 2012,45:440-448.
[51]
Behrens P, Vliet M, Nanninga T, et al. Climate change and the vulnerability of electricity generation to water stress in the European Union[J]. Nature Energy, 2017,2(8):17114.
[52]
Murrant D, Quinn A, Chapman L, et al. Water use of the UK thermal electricity generation fleet by 2050:Part 2 quantifying the problem[J]. Energy Policy, 2017,108:859-874.
[53]
Li M, Dai H, Xie Y, et al. Water conservation from power generation in China:A provincial level scenario towards 2030[J]. Applied Energy, 2017,208:580-591.
[54]
Macknick J, Sattler S, Averyt K, et al. The water implications of generating electricity:Water use across the United States based on different electricity pathways through 2050[J]. Environmental Research Letters, 2012,7(4):045803.
[55]
Liu L, Hejazi M, Patel P, et al. Water demands for electricity generation in the U.S.:Modeling different scenarios for the water-energy nexus[J]. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 2015, 94:318-334.
[56]
Antipova E, Zyryanov A, McKinney D, et al. Optimization of Syr Darya water and energy uses[J]. Water International, 2002,27(4):504-516.
[57]
Dhaubanjar S, Davidsen C, Bauer-Gottwein P. Multi-objective optimization for analysis of changing trade-offs in the Nepalese water-energy-food nexus with hydropower development[J]. Water, 2017,9(12):162.
[58]
Hadian S, Madani K. The water demand of energy:Implications for sustainable energy policy development[J]. Sustainability, 2013, 5(12):4674-4687.
[59]
Parkinson S, Makowski M, Krey V, et al. A multi-criteria model analysis framework for assessing integrated water-energy system transformation pathways[J]. Applied Energy, 2018,210:477-486.
[60]
Perrone D, Murphy J, Hornberger G. Gaining perspective on the water-energy nexus at the community scale[J]. Environmental Science & Technology, 2011,45(10):4228-4234.
[61]
Gu A, Teng F, Wang Y. China energy-water nexus:Assessing the water-saving synergy effects of energy-saving policies during the eleventh five-year plan[J]. Energy Conversion Management, 2014,85:630-637.
[62]
Jin Y, Tang X, Feng C, et al. Energy and water conservation synergy in China:2007~2012[J]. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2017, 127:206-215.
[63]
Bartos M, Chester M. The conservation nexus:Valuing interdependent water and energy savings in Arizona[J]. Environmental Science & Technology, 2014,48(4):2139-2149.
[64]
Ali B. The cost of conserved water for power generation from renewable energy technologies in Alberta, Canada[J]. Energy Conversion and Management, 2017,150:201-213.
[65]
Tidwell V, Kobos P, Malczynski L, et al. Exploring the water-thermoelectric power nexus[J]. Journal of Water Resources Planning & Management, 2012,138(5):491-501.
[66]
Tidwell V, Moreland B. Mapping water consumption for energy production around the Pacific Rim[J]. Environmental Research Letters, 2016,11(9):094008.
[67]
Wang R, Zimmerman J, Wang C, et al. Freshwater vulnerability beyond local water stress:Heterogeneous effects of water-electricity nexus across the continental United States[J]. Environmental Science & Technology, 2017,51(17):9899-9910.
[68]
Zhang C, Zhong L, Liang S, et al. Virtual scarce water embodied in inter-provincial electricity transmission in China[J]. Applied Energy, 2017,187:438-448.
[69]
Dale A, Bilec M. The regional energy & water supply scenarios (REWSS) model, part Ⅱ:Case studies in Pennsylvania and Arizona[J]. Sustainable Energy Technologies & Assessments, 2014,7:237-246.
[70]
Fargione J, Hill J, Tilman D, et al. Land clearing and the biofuel carbon debt[J]. Science, 2008,319(5867):1235-1238.
[71]
Feng K, Hubacek K, Siu Y, et al. The energy and water nexus in Chinese electricity production:A hybrid life cycle analysis[J]. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2014,39:342-355.
[72]
Nanduri V, Saavedra-Antolinez I. A competitive markov decision process model for the energy-water-climate change nexus[J]. Applied Energy, 2013,111:186-198.
[73]
Akpinar A, Kaygusuz K. Regional sustainable water and energy development projects:A case of southeastern Anatolia project (GAP) in Turkey[J]. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2012,16(2):1146-1156.
[74]
Pang M, Zhang L, Ulgiati S, et al. Ecological impacts of small hydropower in China:Insights from an emergy analysis of a case plant[J]. Energy Policy, 2015,76:112-122.
[75]
Kumar P, Saroj D. Water-energy-pollution nexus for growing cities[J]. Urban Climate, 2014,10:846-853.
[76]
Hellegers P, Zilberman D, Steduto P, et al. Interactions between water, energy, food and environment:Evolving perspectives and policy issues[J]. Water Policy, 2008,10:1-10.
[77]
McCornick P, Awulachew S, Abebe M. Water-food-energy-environment synergies and tradeoffs:Major issues and case studies[J]. Water Policy, 2008,10:23-36.
[78]
Schornagel J, Niele F, Worrell E, et al. Water accounting for (agro) industrial operations and its application to energy pathways[J]. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 2012,61:1-15.
[79]
Fraiture C, Giordano M, Liao Y. Biofuels and implications for agricultural water use:Blue impacts of green energy[J]. Water Policy, 2008,10:67-81.
[80]
Fthenakis V, Kim H. Land use and electricity generation:A life-cycle analysis[J]. Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2009,13(6/7):1465-1474.
[81]
Lofman D, Petersen M, Bower A. Water, energy and environment nexus:The California experience[J]. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 2002,18(1):73-85.
[82]
Sovacool B, Sovacool K. Identifying future electricity-water tradeoffs in the United States[J]. Energy Policy, 2009,37(7):2763-2773.
[83]
Hussey K, Pittock J. The energy-water nexus:Managing the links between energy and water for a sustainable future[J]. Ecology and Society, 2012,17(1).
[84]
Sattler S, Macknick J, Yates D, et al. Linking electricity and water models to assess electricity choices at water-relevant scales[J]. Environmental Research Letters, 2012,7(4):045804.
[85]
Scott C, Pierce S, Pasqualetti M, et al. Policy and institutional dimensions of the water-energy nexus[J]. Energy Policy, 2011, 39(10):6622-6630.
